Chapter 8 Confrontation Of Cultures

Introduction

Between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries, encounters between Europeans and the people of the Americas dramatically reshaped both regions. Driven by the search for trading routes to acquire spices and silver, Europeans, particularly the Spanish and Portuguese, embarked on ambitious voyages. These expeditions, sanctioned by the Pope, led to the "discovery" of new lands, initially believed to be part of the Indies but later recognized as a separate continent. The Americas hosted diverse cultures, ranging from small subsistence economies in the Caribbean and Brazil to powerful, organized states like the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas, known for their monumental architecture, advanced agriculture, and mining. The European exploration and settlement of the Americas had devastating consequences for the native populations and their cultures, leading to the destruction of manuscripts and monuments. This period also marked the beginning of the transatlantic slave trade, as Europeans enslaved Africans to work in plantations and mines in the Americas. While European accounts of these encounters are detailed, offering insights into their journeys and motivations, understanding the native American perspective has been a more recent endeavor, with archaeological findings and anthropological studies shedding light on their civilizations.

European Encounters with the Americas

From the fifteenth century, Europeans, driven by economic (trade routes for spices and silver), religious (spreading Christianity), and political (claiming new territories) motives, began exploring and eventually settling in the Americas. Technological advancements in navigation, like the magnetic compass and improved sailing ships, facilitated these voyages across the Atlantic.

Destruction of Native Cultures

The European arrival in the Americas led to the brutal conquest and subjugation of native populations. This often involved the ruthless destruction of native manuscripts, monuments, and cultural practices. Diseases from the Old World, to which native peoples had no immunity, also caused widespread death and cultural devastation.

Sources of Information

Our knowledge of European encounters with the Americas comes from detailed European records, including logbooks, diaries, official documents, and missionary accounts. However, understanding the native perspective has been a more recent development, relying on anthropological studies, archaeological findings, and the belated analysis of native oral traditions and surviving artifacts.

Communities of the Caribbean and Brazil

The Caribbean region and Brazil were home to indigenous communities with distinct cultural practices. The Arawak people of the Caribbean, preferring negotiation over conflict, were skilled boat-builders and sailed the seas in dugout canoes. They lived by hunting, fishing, and agriculture, cultivating crops like corn and cassava. Their central cultural value was communal food production and distribution, organized under clan elders, with polygamy being common. As animists, shamans played key roles as healers and intermediaries. While they used gold for ornaments, they valued glass beads from Europeans more, finding them aesthetically pleasing. Their art of weaving, particularly hammocks, also impressed Europeans. Initially generous, the Arawaks' collaboration with the Spanish for gold led to their brutal subjugation and near-extinction within twenty-five years of contact.

The Tupinamba of Brazil's east coast, living in forest villages, relied on fruits, vegetables, and fish due to their inability to clear dense forests for cultivation without iron tools. Europeans admired their freedom, noting the absence of kings, armies, or churches regulating their lives. Their trade with Europeans involved exchanging local resources for iron tools, which they considered marvels. This interaction highlighted a clash of values, with Europeans driven by accumulation and control, while the Tupinamba prioritized communal well-being and a harmonious relationship with nature.

The Arawaks

The Arawaks, inhabiting the Caribbean islands, were peaceful, skilled boat-builders, and practitioners of communal agriculture and hunting. They valued community cooperation and viewed gold primarily as ornamentation, readily exchanging it for European glass beads.

The Tupinamba

The Tupinamba of Brazil's coast lived in forest villages, subsisting on fruits, vegetables, and fish. They lacked iron tools for agriculture but enjoyed a free lifestyle without formal governance structures, contrasting sharply with the European emphasis on property, hierarchy, and accumulation.

The State Systems of Central and South America

In contrast to the simpler societies of the Caribbean and Brazil, Central and South America hosted highly organized states characterized by well-developed agriculture and monumental architecture. The Aztecs, migrating to the central valley of Mexico in the twelfth century, built a hierarchical society with a supreme leader chosen from the hereditary nobility. Their society valued warriors, priests, nobles, traders, artisans, physicians, and teachers. Land was owned by clans, and peasants worked the lord's land in exchange for a share of the harvest. They developed sophisticated techniques like chinampas (artificial islands) for agriculture, building their capital Tenochtitlan on Lake Mexico. Their empire, however, showed signs of strain due to discontent among conquered peoples.

The Mayas, who flourished between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries in Mexico, had corn cultivation at the center of their culture and religious ceremonies. Their efficient agriculture supported ruling classes who invested in architecture and advancements in astronomy and mathematics. They developed a pictographic writing system, though only partially deciphered.

The Incas of Peru, the largest indigenous civilization in South America, established a highly centralized empire under their king, who represented the sun on earth. They enforced Quechua as the common language and effectively absorbed conquered tribes, resembling a confederacy under Inca control. The Incas were magnificent builders, constructing roads through mountains and fortresses with precisely cut stone blocks. Their labor-intensive methods, terracing, and advanced irrigation systems allowed for high agricultural output in the challenging Andean environment. While they lacked a written script, they used a knot-based accounting system called the quipu. Their achievements, though admired, were built upon the immense labor of the populace, a fact acknowledged by poets like Pablo Neruda, who highlighted the sacrifices made.

The Aztecs

The Aztecs developed a hierarchical society in the central valley of Mexico, with a supreme leader elected from the hereditary nobility. Their capital, Tenochtitlan, was built on artificial islands in Lake Mexico. They valued warriors, priests, nobles, traders, artisans, and teachers, and their empire was sustained by corn cultivation and tribute from conquered peoples.

The Mayas

The Mayan culture, flourishing in Mexico, centered its culture and religion around corn cultivation. Their efficient agriculture supported elites who invested in architecture, astronomy, and mathematics, and they developed a pictographic writing system.

The Incas of Peru

The Incas built a highly centralized empire in Peru, stretching along the Andes mountains. They enforced their language (Quechua) and absorbed conquered tribes into a confederacy. Known for magnificent stone architecture, advanced terracing, irrigation, and a knot-based accounting system (quipu), their civilization relied heavily on organized labor for agricultural and construction projects.

Voyages of Exploration by Europeans

Europeans learned about the existence of the Americas through the voyages of Christopher Columbus, who, inspired by classical texts and the prospect of discovering a westward route to the East, sailed across the Atlantic in 1492. Though he mistakenly believed he had reached India, his voyages, along with those of Amerigo Vespucci, revealed a new continent. Technological advancements like the magnetic compass and larger, more seaworthy ships facilitated these "voyages of discovery." The availability of printed geographical texts, such as Ptolemy's Geography, provided Europeans with some knowledge of the world's arrangement in latitudes and longitudes and the idea of a spherical Earth, although they underestimated ocean distances. The primary motives for these voyages were economic (shortage of gold and silver in Europe, difficulty in East-West trade after Constantinople's fall), religious (spreading Christianity), and political (claiming territories and glory). Portugal, under Prince Henry the Navigator, pioneered West African exploration and trade, while Spain, fueled by the memory of the Reconquista and lucrative "capitulaciones" contracts, also pursued maritime expansion.

Motives for Exploration

European exploration was driven by a combination of economic factors (seeking gold, silver, spices, and new trade routes), religious zeal (spreading Christianity), and political ambitions (claiming territories, glory, and titles).

Technological Advancements in Navigation

Key advancements facilitating European voyages included the magnetic compass (known since 1380 but widely used in the 15th century) and improvements in shipbuilding, leading to larger ships capable of carrying more cargo and defending themselves.

Ptolemy's Geography and the Concept of the World

The printed availability of Ptolemy's Geography in 1477 provided Europeans with knowledge of latitudes and longitudes and the concept of a spherical Earth, encouraging exploration despite underestimating ocean distances.

Spain Establishes an Empire in America

Spanish expansion in the Americas was characterized by military superiority, utilizing gunpowder weapons and horses, and the forced labor of native populations in mines and plantations. Expeditions, financed by Spanish gentry, officials, and noblemen, often involved participants supplying their own equipment in exchange for a share of the expected bounty. Hernan Cortes's conquest of the Aztec empire (1519-1521) was swift and brutal. He allied with groups resentful of Aztec rule, like the Totonacs, and exploited the Aztecs' fear of Spanish technology and their belief that Cortes was a returning god. Dona Marina, an interpreter fluent in local languages, played a crucial role in communication and negotiation. Despite initial cordial reception by Aztec king Montezuma, the Spaniards' aggressive actions and demands for gold led to an uprising. Diseases like smallpox, to which native populations had no immunity, ravaged the Arawaks and Aztecs, contributing significantly to their decline. Cortes's conquest, completed within two years, paved the way for Spanish control over Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Honduras.

Francisco Pizarro, an uneducated and poor soldier, similarly conquered the Inca empire (1532-1535). Hearing tales of Inca wealth in silver and gold, Pizarro secured royal backing. After a civil war within the Inca empire, Pizarro captured the Inca king Atahualpa, extorted a massive ransom, and then executed him. This brutality led to prolonged resistance and epidemics. The Spanish discovered vast silver mines in Potosi, exploiting the Inca population as slave labor. The Spanish imposition of their religion and the relentless pursuit of wealth, incomprehensible to the native peoples, led to the decimation of indigenous populations and the destruction of their cultures, serving as a stark reminder of the tragic consequences of this encounter.

Conquest of Mexico by Cortes

Hernan Cortes led the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire, utilizing military strength, alliances with anti-Aztec groups, and the psychological impact of their technology and perceived divine status. The conquest involved brutal massacres and the eventual exploitation of the defeated population.

Dona Marina's Role

Dona Marina, an Aztec woman fluent in local languages and Spanish, served as a vital interpreter and advisor to Cortes, playing a crucial role in the Spanish conquest by facilitating communication and negotiations with native populations.

Conquest of the Incas by Pizarro

Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca empire by capturing their king, Atahualpa, after a civil war, extorting a ransom, and then executing him. This was followed by the exploitation of the Inca population in silver mines.

Impact of Disease and Exploitation

Old World diseases, particularly smallpox, decimated native populations due to their lack of immunity. Coupled with military repression, forced labor, and a disregard for native values and lives, this led to the near-total destruction of cultures like the Arawaks and the significant decline of the Aztec and Inca civilizations.

Cabral and Brazil

The Portuguese colonization of Brazil occurred somewhat accidentally in 1500 when Pedro Álvares Cabral, en route to India, was diverted by stormy seas to the coast of present-day Brazil. Since this region fell within the territory allocated to Portugal by the Pope, they claimed it as their own. Initially more focused on trade with western India, the Portuguese exploited Brazil for its brazilwood, a tree producing a valuable red dye. Natives readily cut and transported logs for iron tools, knives, and saws, which they perceived as marvelous. This trade led to conflict between Portuguese and French traders, with the Portuguese eventually establishing colonies along the coast. In 1534, the Portuguese king divided the coast into hereditary captaincies, granting landowners the right to enslave the local population. Many Portuguese settlers, often veterans of wars in India, treated the natives brutally. By the 1540s, sugarcane plantations were established, requiring native labor for the demanding work in sugar mills. When natives resisted enslavement, plantation owners resorted to kidnapping them. As native villages were displaced into forests, European towns grew along the coast. The Portuguese then turned to West Africa for slaves, unlike the Spanish who utilized the indigenous populations accustomed to labor in mines and fields. In 1549, a formal Portuguese government was established in Bahia, and Jesuits began working in Brazil, advocating for humane treatment of natives and criticizing slavery, which led to friction with settlers.

Portuguese Exploration of Brazil

The Portuguese arrival in Brazil in 1500 was accidental, occurring during a voyage to India. They claimed the territory based on a papal division of the world and initially focused on exploiting brazilwood for its red dye.

Exploitation of Brazilwood

The brazilwood tree, which produced a valuable red dye, was the primary initial resource exploited by the Portuguese. Natives readily supplied the wood in exchange for iron tools, which they considered marvelous.

Sugarcane Plantations and Slavery

From the 1540s, sugarcane plantations were established, requiring labor. When natives resisted the harsh work, the Portuguese turned to kidnapping them and later to importing enslaved people from West Africa, contrasting with the Spanish reliance on indigenous labor in their colonies.

Conquest, Colonies and the Slave Trade

The European voyages of exploration had profound and lasting consequences for Europe, the Americas, and Africa. For Europe, the "discovery" of the Americas led to increased international trade and industrialization, fueled by the influx of gold and silver from South American mines. Although Spain and Portugal initially benefited, the Atlantic-bordering nations like England, France, Belgium, and Holland ultimately prospered more by investing in trade, establishing colonies, and introducing New World products like tobacco and potatoes to Europe. The Americas faced catastrophic consequences: the decimation of native populations through warfare and disease, the destruction of their cultures, and their enslavement in mines and plantations. The sheer scale of this depopulation is staggering, with estimates suggesting a drastic reduction from approximately 70 million indigenous people to just 3.5 million within a century and a half, primarily due to warfare and introduced diseases. The Spanish conquest of the Aztecs and Incas highlighted contrasts in combat and values, particularly the Spanish avarice for gold, which was incomprehensible to the natives. The enslavement of the native population was a brutal aspect of the emerging capitalist system, with horrific working conditions driven by economic gain, though legal measures to ban forced labor were often circumvented. As the demand for cheap labor continued, particularly for plantations and mining, Europeans turned to Africa for slaves, importing millions of Africans to the Americas, especially Brazil, between the 1550s and 1880s. This marked the beginning of the transatlantic slave trade, a brutal system driven by economic exploitation.

Consequences for Europe

The discovery of the Americas boosted Europe's economy through the influx of gold and silver, expanding international trade and industrialization. Northern European nations, particularly England, France, Belgium, and Holland, benefited significantly by establishing colonies and introducing New World products like tobacco and potatoes.

Consequences for the Native People of the Americas

Native Americans suffered immensely from European conquest, facing widespread death due to warfare and diseases (like smallpox) to which they had no immunity. Their cultures were devastated, their populations decimated, and many were enslaved in mines and plantations.

The Enslavement of Africans

As native populations dwindled and resisted enslavement, Europeans, particularly the Portuguese in Brazil, turned to Africa for a source of cheap labor. Between the 1550s and 1880s, millions of Africans were forcibly transported to the Americas as slaves to work on plantations and in mines, fueling the emerging capitalist economy.

The Potosi Mines and Forced Labour

The discovery of vast silver mines in Potosi (Peru) led to the brutal exploitation of the Inca population as slaves. Reports described the mines as "mouths of hell" that consumed thousands of Indians annually, treated inhumanely by greedy mine owners, highlighting the horrific conditions of forced labor.